Baroque

If we go back in history in search of the beginning of classical music, Gregorian chant appears to be one of the most important sources. According to traditional knowledge, it was Pope Gregory the Great who composed the melodies for the liturgical texts of the catholic church. Gregorian chant is named after this Pope, who lived around the year 600. He is often depicted with a dove on his shoulder. This dove is a symbol of the Holy Spirit, who whispered the melodies into Gregory’s ear.

Gregory the Great

As usual, the story is nicer than the history. There was not just one tradition of monophonic liturgical singing in the Middle Ages. Instead, there were many local traditions. In the eight century, the Frankish king Pippin III wished to harmonize all liturgical chant in his vast empire with that of the church of Rome. His son, Charlemange, continued this policy. Thus, the tradition of Rome became very influential. The Roman chant books that were copied by the Frankish scribes named Gregory as the composer of the melodies. It is very well possible that these Roman books referred to Pope Gregory II instead of Gregory the Great, but the Franks assumed the latter was meant. This made the chant tradition of Rome the standard for the entire Western church.
The chants we know from Roman sources are, however, not the same as the chants in the Frankish copies. Probably some alterations were made during the dissemination of the melodies across the vast Frankish empire. The exact history of Gregorian chant is therefore still obscure.

Starting form the ninth century, we find indications of polyphonic singing in the historical sources. To the Gregorian melody one or more other parts were added. Initially quite simple and straightforward, but as early as 1200 in the Notre Dame at Paris, very complex compositions were made. One example is the Alleluia Nativitas by Perotinus. (mp3 – source). The genesis of these early polyphonic compositions can be considered an important starting point of western classical music.

After the Middle Ages, Gregorian chant kept its influence. Except for being the ‘breeding ground’ for later styles, the melodies themselves were used often in all kinds of compositions. Let’s have three examples.

When Johann Sebastian Bach wrote the Credo of the Hohe Messe, he included the Gregorian melody for “Credo in unum Deum”. Listen to the Gregorian melody: (mp3 – source), and to the beginning of Bach’s Credo: (mp3 – source).

Another example from the Baroque we can find in French organ music. François Couperin (1668-1733) composed a mass for organ, incorporating Gregorian melodies. Listen to the sung Kyrie: (mp3 – source), and to Couperin’s organ verse, where the melody is played in long notes on the pedal: (mp3 – source).

Maurice Duruflé is a twentieth-century composer who was profoundly influenced by Gregorian chant. One can hear it in almost all of his compositions. In his Requiem (1947) these ancient melodies are interwoven with the sound of the modern orchestra. At the beginning of the Introit, the choir sings the unaltered Gregorian melody. Listen to the chant: (mp3 – source), and to the beginning of Duruflé’s Requiem: (mp3 – source)

Recommended cd’s

Chant – Music For Paradise. By: Cisterciënzer Monniken Van Stift Heiligenkreuz (Universal 4766774)

Details: Amazon.com

J.S. Bach – Messe in H-Moll. By: Collegium Vocale, Ghent; Philippe Herreweghe (Virgin Veritas VCD 5 45163 2)

Details: Amazon.com

François Couperin – Messe pour les Paroisses. By: Michel Bouvard – Schola Meridionalis (BMG 74321470042)

Fauré – Duruflé – Requiem. By: Richard Hickox (Eloquence 466 844-2)

Details: Amazon.com

More Gregorian chant on Amazon.com

In the previous article (The First Opera and the Beginning of the Baroque) we saw that the opera Euridice by Jacopo Peri was one of the first opera’s to be written. The story this opera tells is the myth of Opheus and Eurydice. Orpheus descended into the kingdom of the dead to take back his beloved Eurydice. With his singing he mollified the gods of the underworld to such an extent that they could not do anything else than to give Eurydice back to Orpheus. But, there was one condition. During the journey back Orpheus was not allowed to look around to Eurydice. He would lose her for ever if he would do so. Once they were on their way back Orpheus got worried, and when he heard a alarming sound, he got engulfed by doubt. Was there a problem? Had he to go back to solve it? He looked around and lost Eurydice for eternity.

The fact that Orpheus had such an influence on the deities by means of his music, made this myth a recurring theme in the history of classical music. Although Peri’s Eurydice is of earlier date, the opera L’Orpheo by Claudio Monteverdi, is generally considered the first real milestone in the history of opera. L’Orpheo tells the story of Oprheus and Eurydice as well. There are several versions of it. The first, performed in 1607, has a rather inglorious ending. Orpheus was killed by furious Meneads, who hated his music. Since even the rocks they threw at Orpheus refused to hit him because of his beautiful music, the Meneads tore him to pieces. In the version that appeared in print in 1609, Orpheus was luckier. The god Apollo descended from heavens and took Orpeus in a cloud with him into the realm of the gods, from where Orpeus could see Eurydice. There is no clear understanding of the reason for this adaptation. Maybe the version with the happy end was better suited for a larger audience.

Musically Monteverdi’s L’Orfeo shows a considerable variety of musical forms. The opera starts with an instrumental toccata (mp3 – source) played by the orchestra. In the following of the opera the orchestra plays an important role as well. There are many ritornello’s, short instrumental passages: (mp3 – source).
Of course, Orpheus himself has a prominent part. He sings of his love for Eurydice: (mp3 – source). The choir of nymphs and shepherds shares in Orpheus’ joy: (mp3 – source). But then a messenger appears with the bad news of Eurydice’s death: “Your beloved Eurydice, your bride… is dead” (mp3 – source). The air in which Orpheus attempts to gain access to the kingdom of the dead from Charon is one of the most famous passages in the opera: “Possente spirito e formidabil nume…” (mp3 – source).

It is not possible to review the entire opera in this article, but these examples might give you an impression of Monteverdi’s way of composing music to this story. It is highly recommended to take some time to listen or watch this first masterpiece in the history of opera.

Recommended cd’s en dvd’s

Monteverdi l’Orfeo. By: Coro Antonio Il Verso – Ensemble Elyma – Gabriel Garrido (K617 109-2)

Details: Amazon.com

DVD Monteverdi – L’Orfeo. By: Amsterdam Opera (Opus Arte DVD OA0928 D)

Details: Amazon.com

More Monteverdi Orfeo on Amazon.com

Sheet Music

The complete score of this opera can be donwloaded free of charge from the Choral Public Domain Library: Monteverdi – L’Orfeo.

Any visitor of the house of Count Giovanni de’ Bardi in 1580 Florence, had considerable chance to encounter a group learned men. Among these members of the Camerata Bardi were poets, composers and scholars. There were, for example, the composers Giulio Caccini and Vincenzo Galilei (yes, the father of…), but there were also connections to the scholar Girolamo Mei, who was a specialist on the ancient Greek culture. This Mei performed profound research on music that was used during Greek plays. He concluded that all of the tragedies and comedies in ancient Greece were sung monophonically. The players were able to move their public to tears by their singing. The members of the Camerata Bardi were so impressed by this that they set themselves to discover musical means to achieve the same in their own time.

In our current thinking it is obvious that music is connected with emotion. Therefore, it is hard to imagine an era in which that connection was not that important. Yet, in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, the primary concern of a composer was the way in which the music was assembled (com-posed), rather than the emotions it evoked in the listener. The polyphonic fabric was primary an aim rather than a means. Of course, the resulting music can move the listener emotionally, but that was of minor importance. Thus, what happened in Florence was quite revolutionary.

Because of their aim, the learned gentlemen in Bardi’s house had profound difficulties with the polyphonic music of their time. They would have certainly rejected a composition like this: (mp3 – source). In this six-voice motet by Nicolas Gombert (c.1495-c.1560), the listener has to deal with a confusing pell mell of impressions all at the same time. No! There has to be one voice at a time. Then the music gets the chance to move the listener. And so they invented monody: only one singing voice accompanied by simple chords: (mp3 – source).

The initial use of this new style was on stage. The composers Jacopo Peri and Jacopo Corsi were the first to write an opera that employs monody. In 1598 they finished Daphne. Unfortunately the score has been lost. The earliest opera that is conserved is Euridice by Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini. The audio example in the previous paragraph is from this opera. The publication of this opera in 1600 marks a very important turning point in western music. Therefore, this year is generally considered the year in which the Baroque era started.

Recommended cd’s

Jacopo Peri – Euridice. By: Choruses of Hades, Ensemble Arpeggio & Roberto De Caro (ARTS 47276-2)

Details: Amazon.com or Emusic.com